What Promoted India to Return to Purely Indian-named Places in the Early 2000s?

Colonial expansion in late 19th and early on 20th centuries

In historical contexts, New Imperialism characterizes a period of colonial expansion by European powers, the United states of america, and Japan during the tardily 19th and early 20th centuries.^[1] The period featured an unprecedented pursuit of overseas territorial acquisitions. At the time, states focused on building their empires with new technological advances and developments, expanding their territory through conquest, and exploiting the resources of the subjugated countries. During the era of New Imperialism, the Western powers (and Nihon) individually conquered almost all of Africa and parts of Asia. The new wave of imperialism reflected ongoing rivalries amongst the slap-up powers, the economic desire for new resources and markets, and a "civilizing mission" ethos. Many of the colonies established during this era gained independence during the era of decolonization that followed World War II.

The qualifier "new" is used to differentiate mod imperialism from before purple action, such as the formation of ancient empires and the so-called first moving ridge of European colonization.^[one] ^[2]

Rise [edit]

The American Revolution (1775–83) and the plummet of the Castilian Empire in Latin America in the 1820s ended the first era of European imperialism. Peculiarly in Great U.k. these revolutions helped show the deficiencies of mercantilism, the doctrine of economic competition for finite wealth which had supported earlier imperial expansion. In 1846, the Corn Laws were repealed and manufacturers grew, equally the regulations enforced by the Corn Laws had slowed their businesses. With the repeal in place, the manufacturers were able to merchandise more freely. Thus, Uk began to prefer the concept of gratuitous trade.^[iii]

The Congress of Vienna by Jean-Baptiste Isabey (1819). The congress was actually a series of contiguous meetings between colonial powers. Information technology served to divide and reappropriate imperial holdings.

During this menstruum, betwixt the 1815 Congress of Vienna after the defeat of Napoleonic France and Imperial Frg's victory in the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, Great Britain reaped the benefits of being Europe'southward ascendant military and economical power. As the "workshop of the earth", Great britain could produce finished goods so efficiently that they could usually undersell comparable, locally manufactured goods in foreign markets, supplying a large share of the manufactured goods consumed by such nations as the German states, French republic, Belgium, and the United States.^[four] ^{[ page needed ]}

The erosion of British hegemony after the Franco-Prussian War, in which a coalition of German language states led by Prussia soundly defeated the Second French Empire, was occasioned by changes in the European and world economies and in the continental rest of power post-obit the breakdown of the Concert of Europe, established by the Congress of Vienna. The establishment of nation-states in Frg and Italian republic resolved territorial issues that had kept potential rivals embroiled in internal affairs at the heart of Europe to Britain'due south reward. The years from 1871 to 1914 would exist marked past an extremely unstable peace. France'south determination to recover Alsace-Lorraine, annexed by Federal republic of germany equally a event of the Franco-Prussian War, and Frg's mounting imperialist ambitions would keep the two nations constantly poised for disharmonize.^[5]

This contest was sharpened by the Long Depression of 1873–1896, a prolonged period of toll deflation punctuated past severe business downturns, which put pressure on governments to promote home industry, leading to the widespread abandonment of free merchandise among Europe's powers (in Deutschland from 1879 and in France from 1881).^[6] ^[7]

Berlin Conference [edit]

Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913

The Berlin Briefing of 1884–1885 sought to destroy the competition between the powers by defining "effective occupation" every bit the criterion for international recognition of a territory claim, specifically in Africa. The imposition of direct rule in terms of "effective occupation" necessitated routine recourse to armed force against indigenous states and peoples. Uprisings against imperial dominion were put downwards ruthlessly, most brutally in the Herero Wars in German language Due south-Due west Africa from 1904 to 1907 and the Maji Maji Rebellion in German East Africa from 1905 to 1907. Ane of the goals of the conference was to reach agreements over trade, navigation, and boundaries of Central Africa. All the same, of all of the 15 nations in omnipresence of the Berlin Briefing, none of the countries represented were African.

The main dominating powers of the conference were French republic, Frg, Great Britain and Portugal. They remapped Africa without considering the cultural and linguistic borders that were already established. At the finish of the conference, Africa was divided into l different colonies. The attendants established who was in control of each of these newly divided colonies. They also planned, noncommittally, to end the slave trade in Africa.

Britain during the era [edit]

In Britain, the age of new imperialism marked a time for significant economic changes.^[8] Considering the state was the first to industrialize, Uk was technologically ahead of many other countries throughout the bulk of the nineteenth century.^[9] By the finish of the nineteenth century, nonetheless, other countries, chiefly Deutschland and the Us, began to claiming Great britain's technological and economic ability.^[9] After several decades of monopoly, the land was battling to maintain a dominant economic position while other powers became more involved in international markets. In 1870, Britain contained 31.8% of the world's manufacturing capacity while the United states contained 23.iii% and Frg contained 13.2%.^[10] By 1910, Uk's manufacturing chapters had dropped to fourteen.seven%, while that of the U.s.a. had risen to 35.3% and that of Germany to 15.9%.^[x] As countries like Deutschland and America became more economically successful, they began to become more involved with imperialism, resulting in the British struggling to maintain the volume of British merchandise and investment overseas.^[10]

Britain further faced strained international relations with three expansionist powers (Japan, Frg, and Italy) during the early twentieth century. Before 1939, these three powers never directly threatened Britain itself, but the dangers to the Empire were articulate.^[11] Past the 1930s, Britain was worried that Japan would threaten its holdings in the Far East every bit well every bit territories in Bharat, Commonwealth of australia and New Zealand.^[11] Italy held an interest in N Africa, which threatened British Egypt, and High german authorisation of the European continent held some danger for Britain'south security.^[eleven] Britain worried that the expansionist powers would cause the breakup of international stability; as such, British foreign policy attempted to protect the stability in a rapidly irresolute world.^[11] With its stability and holdings threatened, Great britain decided to adopt a policy of concession rather than resistance, a policy that became known as appeasement.^[xi]

In United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, the era of new imperialism affected public attitudes toward the idea of imperialism itself. Virtually of the public believed that if imperialism was going to exist, it was best if Britain was the driving strength behind it.^[12] The same people further thought that British imperialism was a force for good in the world.^[12] In 1940, the Fabian Colonial Research Bureau argued that Africa could be developed both economically and socially, simply until this development could happen, Africa was all-time off remaining with the British Empire. Rudyard Kipling's 1891 poem, "The English Flag," contains the stanza:

Winds of the Earth, give answer! They are whimpering to and fro--
And what should they know of England who but England know?--
The poor trivial street-bred people that vapour and smoke and brag,
They are lifting their heads in the stillness to yelp at the English language Flag!^[13]

These lines show Kipling'southward belief that the British who actively took part in imperialism knew more than about British national identity than the ones whose entire lives were spent solely in the imperial metropolis.^[12] While at that place were pockets of anti-imperialist opposition in Britain in the belatedly nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, resistance to imperialism was nearly nonexistent in the country as a whole.^[12] In many ways, this new form of imperialism formed a function of the British identity until the stop of the era of new imperialism with the 2nd World War.^[12]

[edit]

New Imperialism gave rise to new social views of colonialism. Rudyard Kipling, for instance, urged the U.s. to "Take up the White Man's brunt" of bringing European civilization to the other peoples of the world, regardless of whether these "other peoples" wanted this civilization or not. This part of The White Man's Burden exemplifies Britain'due south perceived attitude towards the colonization of other countries:

Take upward the White Human'southward burden—
In patience to abide,
To veil the threat of terror
And check the show of pride;
By open speech and elementary,
An hundred times made plain
To seek some other's profit,
And piece of work another'southward gain.

While Social Darwinism became pop throughout Western Europe and the United States, the paternalistic French and Portuguese "civilizing mission" (in French: mission civilisatrice ; in Portuguese: Missão civilizadora ) appealed to many European statesmen both in and outside France. Despite apparent benevolence existing in the notion of the "White Man's Burden", the unintended consequences of imperialism might have greatly outweighed the potential benefits. Governments became increasingly paternalistic at home and neglected the individual liberties of their citizens. Military spending expanded, usually leading to an "imperial overreach", and imperialism created clients of ruling elites abroad that were roughshod and decadent, consolidating ability through purple rents and impeding social alter and economic evolution that ran against their ambitions. Furthermore, "nation building" oftentimes created cultural sentiments of racism and xenophobia.^[14]

Many of Europe's major elites also found advantages in formal, overseas expansion: large financial and industrial monopolies wanted imperial support to protect their overseas investments against contest and domestic political tensions abroad, bureaucrats sought government offices, armed services officers desired promotion, and the traditional but waning landed gentries sought increased profits for their investments, formal titles, and high office. Such special interests have perpetuated empire edifice throughout history.^[14]

Observing the rise of trade unionism, socialism, and other protestation movements during an era of mass society both in Europe and later in North America, elites sought to utilise purple jingoism to co-opt the back up of role of the industrial working class. The new mass media promoted jingoism in the Spanish–American State of war (1898), the Second Boer State of war (1899–1902), and the Boxer Rebellion (1900). The left-wing German historian Hans-Ulrich Wehler has defined social imperialism as "the diversions outwards of internal tensions and forces of alter in club to preserve the social and political status quo", and equally a "defensive credo" to counter the "disruptive effects of industrialization on the social and economical structure of Federal republic of germany".^[15] In Wehler's opinion, social imperialism was a device that allowed the High german government to distract public attending from domestic problems and preserve the existing social and political social club. The ascendant elites used social imperialism equally the glue to hold together a fractured society and to maintain popular support for the social status quo. According to Wehler, High german colonial policy in the 1880s was the commencement instance of social imperialism in activity, and was followed up by the 1897 Tirpitz Plan for expanding the German Navy. In this betoken of view, groups such as the Colonial Lodge and the Navy League are seen as instruments for the government to mobilize public support. The demands for annexing most of Europe and Africa in World War I are seen by Wehler as the pinnacle of social imperialism.^[15]

The notion of dominion over foreign lands allowable widespread acceptance amongst metropolitan populations, even among those who associated regal colonization with oppression and exploitation. For case, the 1904 Congress of the Socialist International concluded that the colonial peoples should be taken in manus by time to come European socialist governments and led by them into eventual independence.^{[ citation needed ]}

South asia [edit]

India [edit]

In the 17th century, the British businessmen arrived in India and, afterward taking a small portion of country, formed the E India Company. The British East India Company annexed most of the subcontinent of India, starting with Bengal in 1757 and ending with Punjab in 1849. Many princely states remained contained. This was aided past a ability vacuum formed past the collapse of the Mughal Empire in Republic of india and the death of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and increased British forces in Republic of india because of colonial conflicts with France. The invention of clipper ships in the early 1800s cut the trip to India from Europe in half from 6 months to iii months; the British also laid cables on the floor of the bounding main allowing telegrams to be sent from India and China. In 1818, the British controlled near of the Indian subcontinent and began imposing their ideas and ways on its residents, including different succession laws that allowed the British to take over a state with no successor and gain its land and armies, new taxes, and monopolistic control of industry. The British also collaborated with Indian officials to increase their influence in the region.

Some Hindu and Muslim Sepoys rebelled in 1857, resulting in the Indian Wildcat. After this revolt was suppressed by the British, India came under the direct command of the British crown. Subsequently the British had gained more command over India, they began changing around the financial country of India. Previously, Europe had to pay for Indian textiles and spices in bullion; with political control, Uk directed farmers to grow cash crops for the company for exports to Europe while Republic of india became a marketplace for textiles from United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland. In add-on, the British collected huge revenues from land rent and taxes on its caused monopoly on salt product. Indian weavers were replaced by new spinning and weaving machines and Indian food crops were replaced by greenbacks crops like cotton and tea.

The British as well began connecting Indian cities past railroad and telegraph to brand travel and advice easier as well as building an irrigation arrangement for increasing agricultural production. When Western education was introduced in India, Indians were quite influenced past it, but the inequalities between the British ethics of governance and their treatment of Indians became clear.^{[ clarification needed ]} In response to this discriminatory treatment, a grouping of educated Indians established the Indian National Congress, demanding equal treatment and cocky-governance.

John Robert Seeley, a Cambridge Professor of History, said, "Our acquisition of India was made blindly. Nothing not bad that has ever been done by Englishmen was washed so unintentionally or accidentally as the conquest of India". According to him, the political control of Republic of india was not a conquest in the usual sense considering it was non an deed of a state.^{[ commendation needed ]}

The new administrative system, crowned with Queen Victoria's proclamation equally Empress of Bharat in 1876, effectively replaced the dominion of a monopolistic enterprise with that of a trained civil service headed past graduates of United kingdom's elevation universities. The administration retained and increased the monopolies held past the company. The Republic of india Table salt Deed of 1882 included regulations enforcing a government monopoly on the collection and manufacture of salt; in 1923 a nib was passed doubling the table salt tax.^[16]

Southeast Asia [edit]

After taking command of much of Bharat, the British expanded further into Burma, Malaya, Singapore and Borneo, with these colonies becoming farther sources of trade and raw materials for British appurtenances. The U.s. laid claim to the Philippines, and after the Philippine–American War, took command of the country every bit one of its overseas possessions.

Indonesia [edit]

Formal colonization of the Dutch East Indies (at present Indonesia) commenced at the dawn of the 19th century when the Dutch state took possession of all Dutch East Bharat Company (VOC) assets. Before that time the VOC merchants were in principle just some other trading power amid many, establishing trading posts and settlements (colonies) in strategic places around the archipelago. The Dutch gradually extended their sovereignty over most of the islands in the East Indies. Dutch expansion paused for several years during an interregnum of British rule betwixt 1806 and 1816, when the Dutch Democracy was occupied past the French forces of Napoleon. The Dutch authorities-in-exile in England ceded rule of all its colonies to Britain. However, Jan Willem Janssens, the Governor of the Dutch East Indies at the time, fought the British before surrendering the colony; he was somewhen replaced by Stamford Raffles.^[17]

The Dutch East Indies became the prize possession of the Dutch Empire. It was non the typical settler colony founded through massive emigration from the mother countries (such as the USA or Australia) and inappreciably involved displacement of the ethnic islanders, with a notable and dramatic exception in the island of Banda during the VOC era.^[eighteen] Neither was information technology a plantation colony built on the import of slaves (such as Republic of haiti or Jamaica) or a pure merchandise mail colony (such as Singapore or Macau). It was more of an expansion of the existing concatenation of VOC trading posts. Instead of mass emigration from the homeland, the sizeable indigenous populations were controlled through effective political manipulation supported by military strength. The servitude of the indigenous masses was enabled through a structure of indirect governance, keeping existing ethnic rulers in place. This strategy was already established past the VOC, which independently acted as a semi-sovereign state inside the Dutch state, using the Indo Eurasian population as an intermediary buffer.^[nineteen]

In 1869 British anthropologist Alfred Russel Wallace described the colonial governing structure in his volume "The Malay Archipelago":^[20]

"The way of government now adopted in Java is to retain the whole series of native rulers, from the village chief up to princes, who, under the name of Regents, are the heads of districts about the size of a small English county. With each Regent is placed a Dutch Resident, or Banana Resident, who is considered to be his "elder brother," and whose "orders" accept the form of "recommendations," which are, however, implicitly obeyed. Along with each Banana, Resident is a Controller, a kind of inspector of all the lower native rulers, who periodically visits every village in the commune, examines the proceedings of the native courts, hears complaints against the caput-men or other native chiefs, and superintends the Authorities plantations."

Indochina [edit]

France annexed all of Vietnam and Cambodia in the 1880s; in the following decade, French republic completed its Indochinese empire with the annexation of Lao people's democratic republic, leaving the kingdom of Siam (now Thailand) with an uneasy independence as a neutral buffer between British and French-ruled lands.

Eastern asia [edit]

Cathay [edit]

In 1839, People's republic of china establish itself fighting the First Opium War with Swell U.k. after the Governor-General of Hunan and Hubei, Lin Zexu, seized the illegally traded opium. Cathay was defeated, and in 1842 agreed to the provisions of the Treaty of Nanking. Hong Kong Island was ceded to Britain, and sure ports, including Shanghai and Guangzhou, were opened to British merchandise and residence. In 1856, the 2nd Opium War broke out; the Chinese were again defeated and forced to the terms of the 1858 Treaty of Tientsin and the 1860 Convention of Peking. The treaty opened new ports to trade and immune foreigners to travel in the interior. Missionaries gained the right to propagate Christianity, another means of Western penetration. The Usa and Russian federation obtained the aforementioned prerogatives in separate treaties.

Towards the stop of the 19th century, China appeared on the fashion to territorial dismemberment and economic vassalage, the fate of India's rulers that had played out much earlier. Several provisions of these treaties caused long-standing bitterness and humiliation among the Chinese: extraterritoriality (meaning that in a dispute with a Chinese person, a Westerner had the right to be tried in a court nether the laws of his ain country), customs regulation, and the correct to station foreign warships in Chinese waters.

In 1904, the British invaded Lhasa, a pre-emptive strike against Russian intrigues and secret meetings between the 13th Dalai Lama's envoy and Tsar Nicholas II. The Dalai Lama fled into exile to Red china and Mongolia. The British were greatly concerned at the prospect of a Russian invasion of the Crown colony of India, though Russia – desperately defeated past Nippon in the Russo-Japanese War and weakened past internal rebellion – could not realistically afford a military disharmonize against Britain. China under the Qing dynasty, withal, was some other affair.^[21]

Natural disasters, famine and internal rebellions had enfeebled China in the tardily Qing. In the tardily 19th century, Japan and the Great Powers easily carved out trade and territorial concessions. These were humiliating submissions for the once-powerful China. Still, the central lesson of the war with Japan was not lost on the Russian General Staff: an Asian country using Western technology and industrial production methods could defeat a corking European power.^[22] Jane E. Elliott criticized the allegation that China refused to modernize or was unable to defeat Western armies every bit simplistic, noting that Red china embarked on a massive military modernization in the tardily 1800s later several defeats, buying weapons from Western countries and manufacturing their own at arsenals, such as the Hanyang Arsenal during the Boxer Rebellion. In addition, Elliott questioned the merits that Chinese society was traumatized by the Western victories, equally many Chinese peasants (90% of the population at that time) living outside the concessions continued nearly their daily lives, uninterrupted and without any feeling of "humiliation".^[23]

The British observer Demetrius Charles de Kavanagh Boulger suggested a British-Chinese alliance to check Russian expansion in Fundamental Asia.

During the Ili crisis when Qing Mainland china threatened to become to state of war against Russian federation over the Russian occupation of Ili, the British officer Charles George Gordon was sent to People's republic of china past Britain to suggest China on military options against Russian federation should a potential war suspension out between China and Russia.^[24]

The Russians observed the Chinese building up their arsenal of modern weapons during the Ili crisis, the Chinese bought thousands of rifles from Germany.^[25] In 1880 massive amounts of military equipment and rifles were shipped via boats to China from Antwerp as China purchased torpedoes, arms, and 260,260 mod rifles from Europe.^[26]

The Russian war machine observer D. Five. Putiatia visited China in 1888 and found that in Northeastern Cathay (Manchuria) forth the Chinese-Russian border, the Chinese soldiers were potentially able to become adept at "European tactics" under certain circumstances, and the Chinese soldiers were armed with modern weapons like Krupp arms, Winchester carbines, and Mauser rifles.^[27]

Compared to Russian controlled areas, more benefits were given to the Muslim Kirghiz on the Chinese controlled areas. Russian settlers fought against the Muslim nomadic Kirghiz, which led the Russians to believe that the Kirghiz would exist a liability in any disharmonize against Mainland china. The Muslim Kirghiz were sure that in an upcoming state of war, that China would defeat Russian federation.^[28]

The Qing dynasty forced Russian federation to hand over disputed territory in Ili in the Treaty of Leningrad (1881), in what was widely seen by the w every bit a diplomatic victory for the Qing.^[29] Russia acknowledged that Qing Cathay potentially posed a serious military threat.^[30] Mass media in the west during this era portrayed China as a rising military machine power due to its modernization programs and as major threat to the western world, invoking fears that Mainland china would successfully conquer western colonies like Australia.^[31]

Russian sinologists, the Russian media, threat of internal rebellion, the pariah status inflicted by the Congress of Berlin, and the negative state of the Russian economy all led Russia to concede and negotiate with China in St Petersburg, and return nearly of Ili to People's republic of china.^[32]

Historians have judged the Qing dynasty'south vulnerability and weakness to strange imperialism in the 19th century to be based mainly on its maritime naval weakness while information technology accomplished armed forces success against westerners on country, the historian Edward L. Dreyer said that "China'south nineteenth-century humiliations were strongly related to her weakness and failure at sea. At the commencement of the Opium State of war, China had no unified navy and no sense of how vulnerable she was to assail from the sea; British forces sailed and steamed wherever they wanted to get. ... In the Arrow State of war (1856–60), the Chinese had no manner to prevent the Anglo-French expedition of 1860 from sailing into the Gulf of Zhili and landing equally near equally possible to Beijing. Meanwhile, new merely not exactly modern Chinese armies suppressed the midcentury rebellions, bluffed Russia into a peaceful settlement of disputed frontiers in Primal Asia, and defeated the French forces on land in the Sino-French War (1884–85). Merely the defeat of the fleet, and the resulting threat to steamship traffic to Taiwan, forced Red china to conclude peace on unfavorable terms."^[33]

The British and Russian consuls schemed and plotted against each other at Kashgar.^[34]

In 1906, Tsar Nicholas 2 sent a secret agent to Mainland china to collect intelligence on the reform and modernization of the Qing dynasty. The task was given to Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, at the fourth dimension a colonel in the Russian ground forces, who travelled to China with French Sinologist Paul Pelliot. Mannerheim was bearded as an ethnographic collector, using a Finnish passport.^[22] Finland was, at the time, a Thousand Duchy. For two years, Mannerheim proceeded through Xinjiang, Gansu, Shaanxi, Henan, Shanxi and Inner Mongolia to Beijing. At the sacred Buddhist mountain of Wutai Shan he fifty-fifty met the 13th Dalai Lama.^[35] However, while Mannerheim was in Cathay in 1907, Russia and Britain brokered the Anglo-Russian Agreement, ending the classical period of the Neat Game.

The contributor Douglas Story observed Chinese troops in 1907 and praised their abilities and military skill.^[36]

The rise of Japan equally an imperial power after the Meiji Restoration led to further subjugation of China. In a dispute over regional suzerainty, war broke out between China and Nippon, resulting in another humiliating defeat for the Chinese. By the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895, China was forced to recognize Korea's exit from the Imperial Chinese tributary system, leading to the announcement of the Korean Empire, and the island of Taiwan was ceded to Japan.

In 1897, taking advantage of the murder of 2 missionaries, Federal republic of germany demanded and was given a set of mining and railroad rights around Jiaozhou Bay in Shandong province. In 1898, Russian federation obtained access to Dairen and Port Arthur and the right to build a railroad across Manchuria, thereby achieving complete domination over a big portion of northeast Cathay. The United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, French republic, and Japan also received a number of concessions later that year.

The erosion of Chinese sovereignty contributed to a spectacular anti-foreign outbreak in June 1900, when the "Boxers" (properly the society of the "righteous and harmonious fists") attacked foreign legations in Beijing. This Boxer Rebellion provoked a rare display of unity among the colonial powers, who formed the Eight-Nation Alliance. Troops landed at Tianjin and marched on the capital, which they took on 14 Baronial; the foreign soldiers then looted and occupied Beijing for several months. German language forces were particularly severe in exacting revenge for the killing of their administrator, while Russia tightened its concur on Manchuria in the northeast until its crushing defeat by Japan in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905.

Although extraterritorial jurisdiction was abandoned by the Uk and the United states in 1943, foreign political control of parts of China simply finally ended with the incorporation of Hong Kong and the pocket-size Portuguese territory of Macau into the People's Democracy of China in 1997 and 1999 respectively.

Mainland Chinese historians refer to this period as the century of humiliation.

Central Asia [edit]

This section needs expansion. Y'all can help by adding to it. (July 2012)

Persia at the kickoff of the Bang-up Game in 1814

"The Slap-up Game" (As well chosen the Tournament of Shadows (Russian: Турниры теней, Turniry Teney) in Russian federation) was the strategic, economical and political rivalry, emanating to conflict between the British Empire and the Russian Empire for supremacy in Central Asia at the expense of Afghanistan, Persia and the Central Asian Khanates/Emirates. The classic Slap-up Game menstruation is generally regarded every bit running approximately from the Russo-Persian Treaty of 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, in which nations similar Emirate of Bukhara fell. A less intensive phase followed the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, causing some trouble with Persia and Transitional islamic state of afghanistan until the mid 1920s.

In the postal service-Second World War post-colonial menses, the term has informally continued in its usage to describe the geopolitical machinations of the Peachy Powers and regional powers as they vie for geopolitical ability as well as influence in the area, especially in Afghanistan and Iran/Persia.^[37] ^[38]

Africa [edit]

Prelude [edit]

French conquest of Algeria began in 1830.

Between 1850 and 1914, United kingdom brought nigh xxx% of Africa's population nether its control, to 15% for France, 9% for Germany, seven% for Belgium and 1% for Italia: Nigeria lone contributed 15 million subjects to Britain, more than in the whole of French Westward Africa, or the entire German language colonial empire. The only nations that were not nether European command past 1914 were Liberia and Ethiopia.^[39]

British colonies [edit]

Great britain'southward formal occupation of Egypt in 1882, triggered by concern over the Suez Canal, contributed to a preoccupation over securing control of the Nile River, leading to the conquest of neighboring Sudan in 1896–1898, which in turn led to confrontation with a French armed forces expedition at Fashoda in September 1898. In 1899, Great britain set out to consummate its takeover of the future S Africa, which information technology had begun in 1814 with the annexation of the Cape Colony, by invading the gold-rich Afrikaner republics of Transvaal and the neighboring Orange Free State. The chartered British South Africa Company had already seized the land to the north, renamed Rhodesia subsequently its caput, the Cape tycoon Cecil Rhodes.

British gains in southern and Due east Africa prompted Rhodes and Alfred Milner, United kingdom'due south High Commissioner in South Africa, to urge a "Cape to Cairo" empire: linked by rails, the strategically important Canal would exist firmly connected to the mineral-rich South, though Belgian control of the Congo Free State and German control of German East Africa prevented such an upshot until the cease of Globe State of war I, when Great Uk acquired the latter territory.

United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland's quest for southern Africa and its diamonds led to social complications and fallouts that lasted for years. To piece of work for their prosperous visitor, British businessmen hired both white and blackness South Africans. But when it came to jobs, the white South Africans received the higher paid and less dangerous ones, leaving the blackness South Africans to hazard their lives in the mines for limited pay. This process of separating the 2 groups of S Africans, whites and blacks, was the get-go of segregation between the two that lasted until 1990.

Paradoxically, the Uk, a staunch abet of gratis trade, emerged in 1914 with not only the largest overseas empire, cheers to its long-standing presence in Republic of india, but likewise the greatest gains in the conquest of Africa, reflecting its advantageous position at its inception.

Congo Free State [edit]

Until 1876, Belgium had no colonial presence in Africa. It was so that its male monarch, Leopold Ii created the International African Club. Operating under the pretense of an international scientific and philanthropic association, it was actually a individual holding visitor owned past Leopold.^[40] Henry Morton Stanley was employed to explore and colonize the Congo River bowl area of equatorial Africa in social club to capitalize on the plentiful resource such as ivory, rubber, diamonds, and metals.^{[ commendation needed ]} Up until this point, Africa was known as "the Dark Continent" because of the difficulties Europeans had with exploration.^[41] Over the next few years, Stanley overpowered and made treaties with over 450 native tribes, acquiring him over ii,340,000 square kilometres (905,000 sq mi) of land, nearly 67 times the size of Kingdom of belgium.^{[ citation needed ]}

Neither the Belgian government nor the Belgian people had whatever interest in imperialism at the time, and the land came to be personally endemic by King Leopold Ii. At the Berlin Conference in 1884, he was allowed to take country named the Congo Free State. The other European countries at the briefing allowed this to happen on the conditions that he suppress the East African slave merchandise, promote humanitarian policies, guarantee free trade, and encourage missions to Christianize the people of the Congo. However, Leopold II'southward principal focus was to make a large profit on the natural resources, especially ivory and rubber. In club to make this profit, he passed several cruel decrees that can exist considered to be genocide. He forced the natives to supply him with rubber and ivory without any sort of payment in return. Their wives and children were held hostage until the workers returned with enough prophylactic or ivory to fill their quota, and if they could not, their family would exist killed. When villages refused, they were burned down; the children of the village were murdered and the men had their hands cut off. These policies led to uprisings, but they were feeble compared to European military and technological might, and were consequently crushed. The forced labor was opposed in other means: fleeing into the forests to seek refuge or setting the prophylactic forests on burn, preventing the Europeans from harvesting the rubber.^{[ citation needed ]}

No population figures exist from before or after the period, simply it is estimated that every bit many as x 1000000 people died from violence, famine and illness.^[42] However, some sources indicate to a full population of 16 one thousand thousand people.^[43]

Male monarch Leopold Ii profited from the enterprise with a 700% turn a profit ratio for the rubber he took from Congo and exported.^{[ citation needed ]} He used propaganda to keep the other European nations at bay, for he broke about all of the parts of the agreement he made at the Berlin Briefing. For example, he had some Congolese pygmies sing and dance at the 1897 Globe Fair in Belgium, showing how he was supposedly civilizing and educating the natives of the Congo. Under meaning international pressure, the Belgian government annexed the territory in 1908 and renamed it the Belgian Congo, removing information technology from the personal power of the male monarch.^[twoscore] Of all the colonies that were conquered during the wave of New Imperialism, the homo rights abuses of the Congo Free State were considered the worst.^[44] ^[45] ^[46]

Oceania [edit]

France gained a leading position equally an imperial power in the Pacific after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively.^[47] Tahiti was after annexed entirely into the French colonial empire in 1880, along with the rest of the Social club Islands.^[48]

The United states of america made several territorial gains during this period, especially with the looting of Hawaii and acquisition of most of Spain's colonial outposts following the 1898 Spanish–American War,^[49] ^[50] as well as the segmentation of the Samoan Islands into American Samoa and German Samoa.^[51]

Past 1900, nearly all islands in the Pacific Bounding main were under the control of Britain, France, the United States, Germany, Japan, Mexico, Republic of ecuador and Chile.^[47]

Chilean expansion [edit]

Chile'due south interest in expanding into the islands of the Pacific Body of water dates to the presidency of José Joaquín Prieto (1831-1841) and the ideology of Diego Portales, who considered that Chile's expansion into Polynesia was a natural event of its maritime destiny.^[52] ^[A] Still, the first phase of the state'southward expansionism into the Pacific began only a decade afterward, in 1851, when—in response to an American incursion into the Juan Fernández Islands—Chile'due south government formally organized the islands into a subdelegation of Valparaíso.^[54] That same yr, Chile'southward economical interest in the Pacific were renewed after its merchant armada briefly succeeded in creating an agricultural goods commutation market that continued the Californian port of San Francisco with Australia.^[55] By 1861, Chile had established a lucrative enterprise across the Pacific, its national currency abundantly circulating throughout Polynesia and its merchants trading in the markets of Tahiti, New Zealand, Tasmania, and Shanghai; negotiations were also made with the Spanish Philippines, and altercations reportedly occurred between Chilean and American whalers in the Bounding main of Nippon. This menstruation ended as a outcome of the Chilean merchant fleet's destruction past Spanish forces in 1866, during the Chincha Islands War.^[56]

Chile's Polynesian aspirations would again exist awakened in the aftermath of the country's decisive victory against Republic of peru in the War of the Pacific, which left the Chilean fleet equally the ascendant maritime force in the Pacific coast of the Americas.^[52] Valparaíso had as well become the about important port in the Pacific declension of South America, providing Chilean merchants with the chapters to observe markets in the Pacific for its new mineral wealth caused from the Atacama.^[57] During this period, the Chilean intellectual and politico Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna (who served as senator in the National Congress from 1876 to 1885) was an influential voice in favor of Chilean expansionism into the Pacific—he considered that Kingdom of spain'southward discoveries in the Pacific had been stolen by the British, and envisioned that Chile's duty was to create an empire in the Pacific that would accomplish Asia.^[52] In the context of this imperialist fervor is that, in 1886, Captain Policarpo Toro of the Chilean Navy proposed to his superiors the annexation of Easter Island; a proposal which was supported by President José Manuel Balmaceda because of the island's apparent strategic location and economical value. After Toro transferred the rights to the island's sheep ranching operations from Tahiti-based businesses to the Chilean-based Williamson-Balfour Visitor in 1887, Easter Island'southward annexation process was culminated with the signing of the "Agreement of Wills" between Rapa Nui chieftains and Toro, in name of the Chilean government, in 1888.^[58] By occupying Easter Isle, Chile joined the royal nations.^[59] ^: 53

Regal rivalries [edit]

Map of the world in 1914, before the start of Earth War I

The extension of European command over Africa and Asia added a further dimension to the rivalry and mutual suspicion which characterized international diplomacy in the decades preceding World War I. France'southward seizure of Tunisia in 1881 initiated fifteen years of tension with Italy, which had hoped to take the land, retaliating past allying with Deutschland and waging a decade-long tariff war with France. Britain's takeover of Egypt a yr afterwards caused a marked cooling of its relations with French republic.

The most striking conflicts of the era were the Spanish–American State of war of 1898 and the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05, each signaling the advent of a new imperial neat power; the United States and Nippon, respectively. The Fashoda incident of 1898 represented the worst Anglo-French crisis in decades, but France'southward buckling in the confront of British demands foreshadowed improved relations as the two countries set up near resolving their overseas claims.

British policy in S Africa and German language actions in the Far East contributed to dramatic policy shifts, which in the 1900s, aligned hitherto isolationist Britain outset with Nihon equally an ally, and and so with France and Russia in the looser Triple Entente. German efforts to break the Entente past challenging French hegemony in Morocco resulted in the Tangier Crisis of 1905 and the Agadir Crisis of 1911, adding to tension and anti-German language sentiment in the years preceding World War I. In the Pacific, conflicts between Germany, the U.s.a., and the Great britain contributed to the First and 2d Samoan Civil War.

Another crisis occurred in 1902–03, when there was a stand up-off between Venezuela backed past Argentine republic, the United states (see Drago Doctrine and Monroe Doctrine) and a coalition of European countries.

Motivation [edit]

Humanitarianism [edit]

One of the biggest motivations behind New Imperialism was the thought of humanitarianism and "civilizing" the "lower" form people in Africa and in other undeveloped places. This was a religious motive for many Christian missionaries, in an attempt to save the souls of the "uncivilized" people, and based on the idea that Christians and the people of the United Kingdom were morally superior. Most of the missionaries that supported imperialism did so because they felt the only true religion was their ain. Similarly, Roman Catholic missionaries opposed British missionaries considering the British missionaries were Protestant. At times, however, imperialism did help the people of the colonies considering the missionaries ended up stopping some of the slavery in some areas. Therefore, Europeans claimed that they were merely in that location considering they wanted to protect the weaker tribal groups they conquered. The missionaries and other leaders suggested that they should terminate such practices every bit cannibalism, child spousal relationship, and other "roughshod things". This humanitarian ideal was described in poems such as the White Human'due south Brunt and other literature. Ofttimes, the humanitarianism was sincere, simply with misguided choices. Although some imperialists were trying to be sincere with the notion of humanitarianism, at times their choices might not have been best for the areas they were acquisition and the natives living there.^[sixty]

Dutch Upstanding Policy [edit]

Dutch, Indo-Eurasian and Javanese professors of law at the opening of the Rechts Hogeschool in 1924.

The Dutch Ethical Policy was the ascendant reformist and liberal political grapheme of colonial policy in the Dutch East Indies during the 20th century. In 1901, the Dutch Queen Wilhelmina appear that kingdom of the netherlands accepted an ethical responsibleness for the welfare of their colonial subjects. This annunciation was a abrupt contrast with the former official doctrine that Republic of indonesia was mainly a wingewest (region for making profit). It marked the showtime of modern development policy, implemented and practised by Alexander Willem Frederik Idenburg, whereas other colonial powers usually talked of a civilizing mission, which mainly involved spreading their culture to colonized peoples.

The Dutch Upstanding Policy (Dutch: Ethische Politiek ) emphasised improvement in material living conditions. The policy suffered, however, from serious underfunding, inflated expectations and lack of credence in the Dutch colonial establishment, and it had largely ceased to exist by the onset of the Great Low in 1929.^[61] ^[62] It did however create an educated indigenous elite able to clear and somewhen establish independence from the Netherlands.

Theories [edit]

The "aggregating theory" adopted past Karl Kautsky, John A. Hobson and popularized by Vladimir Lenin centered on the aggregating of surplus capital during and later the Industrial Revolution: restricted opportunities at home, the argument goes, collection fiscal interests to seek more profitable investments in less-developed lands with lower labor costs, unexploited raw materials and little competition. Hobson'due south assay fails to explicate colonial expansion on the role of less industrialized nations with little surplus capital, such as Italian republic, or the neat powers of the next century—the United States and Russia—which were in fact net borrowers of foreign capital. As well, armed forces and bureaucratic costs of occupation oft exceeded financial returns. In Africa (sectional of what would become the Wedlock of South Africa in 1909) the corporeality of upper-case letter investment by Europeans was relatively modest earlier and after the 1880s, and the companies involved in tropical African commerce exerted limited political influence.

The "World-Systems theory" approach of Immanuel Wallerstein sees imperialism as part of a full general, gradual extension of upper-case letter investment from the "core" of the industrial countries to a less adult "periphery." Protectionism and formal empire were the major tools of "semi-peripheral," newly industrialized states, such as Germany, seeking to usurp United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland's position at the "cadre" of the global capitalist organisation.

Echoing Wallerstein's global perspective to an extent, imperial historian Bernard Porter views United kingdom's adoption of formal imperialism as a symptom and an issue of her relative decline in the world, and not of forcefulness: "Stuck with outmoded concrete plants and outmoded forms of business concern organization, [Britain] at present felt the less favorable furnishings of being the first to modernize."^{[ citation needed ]}

Timeline [edit]

The inclusion or exclusion of items from this list or length of this list is disputed. Please hash out this effect on the talk page.

1815: Congress of Vienna.
1816: Portuguese conquest of the Banda Oriental. Creation American Colonization Society in Liberia (1816-1847).
1818: Argentina occupied Manila and California for a short time
1820: Argentina protectorate over Peru. Russian federation protectorate over Principality of Serbia.
1822: Argentina annexed Falkland Islands.
1830: France annexed Algeria
1832: Ecuador annexed the Galápagos Islands.
1833: U.k. annexed Falkland Islands.
1838: Uk annexed Pitcairn Islands.
1839: Britain conquered Aden from Sultanate of Lahej. Argentina annexed Salta and Jujuy
1841: Britain established Colony of New Zealand.
1842: Uk received Hong Kong Island from Qing dynasty.
1843: Argentina protectorate over Gobierno del Cerrito
1848: USA annexed Texas and California.
1849: Uk annexed Sikh Empire in Punjab.
1853: France annexed New Caledonia.
1855: Sectionalisation of Kuril Islands and Sakhalin between Russia and Japan.
1857: Britain annexed Cocos (Keeling) Islands and Perim, French conquest of People's democratic republic of algeria completed.
1857: United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland fights the Sepoy mutiny
1861: Mexico annexed Revillagigedo Islands in Oceania.
1862: Creation of French Cochinchina, British Honduras declared a colony.
1867: USA annexed Midway Atoll.
1867: Alaska Purchase.
1869: Japan annexed Hokkaido.
1870: Russia annexed Novaya Zemlya. Argentina annexed Formosa. Brazil annexed Mato Grosso do Sul.
1874: Uk established Colony of Fiji.
1875: Nippon annexed Bonin Islands.
1876: British protectorate over Socotra.
1877: Britain annexed Laccadive Islands.
1879: Nihon annexed Ryukyu Islands.
1881: United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland annexed Rotuma.
1881: French republic annexed Tunisia.
1882: Uk conquered Egypt.
1884: Argentina completed Conquest of the Desert in Patagonia.
1885: Britain completed conquest of Burma/Myanmar, Belgian king established Congo Free State, Germany established protectorate over Republic of the marshall islands.
1887: British protectorate over Maldives, French Somaliland created.
1888: Britain annexed Christmas Island, British Somaliland created, Germany annexed Nauru, Chile annexed Easter Island.
1889: Cosmos of French Polynesia.
1890: British protectorate over Zanzibar, Italian Eritrea created.
1892: Britain annexed Banaba Island and Gilbert Islands.
1895: Qing dynasty ceded Taiwan and Penghu to Japan.
1897: French republic annexed Madagascar.
1898: USA annexed Hawaii.
1898: United states of america annexed Puerto Rico, Cuba, Guam and the Philippine islands.
1899: Segmentation of Samoan Islands into High german Samoa and American Samoa.
1900: Britain established protectorate over Tonga.
1903: Brazil annexed the Acre Region
1906–1913: Mexico annexed Clipperton Isle.
1906: Britain and France established New Hebrides condominium.
1908: France annexed Comoro Islands.
1910: Japan annexed Korean Empire.
1914: United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland annexed Cyprus.
1917: Argentina completed conquest of the Chaco
1926: Soviet Union annexed Franz Josef Land and Wrangel Island.
1931: France annexed the Clipperton Island
1933: Soviet Spousal relationship annexed Severnaya Zemlya.
1935–1937: Abyssinia Crisis and Second Italo-Ethiopian State of war: Italy conquered and annexed Ethiopia every bit part of Italian Due east Africa

Notes [edit]

^ According to economist Neantro Saavedra-Rivano: "Of all Latin American countries, Chile has been the most explicit and consequent throughout its history in expressing its vocation equally a Pacific nation and acting in accordance with this conception."^[53]

References [edit]

^ ^a ^b Com Louis, Wm. Roger (2006). "32: Robinson and Gallagher and Their Critics". Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez, and Decolonization. London: I.B.Tauris. p. 910. ISBN9781845113476 . Retrieved 10 August 2017. [...] the concept of the 'new imperialism' espoused by such diverse writers every bit John A. Hobson, V. I. Lenin, Leonard Woolf, Parker T, Moon, Robert L. Schuyler, and William Fifty. Langer. Those students of imperialism, whatever their purpose in writing, all saw a fundamental difference betwixt the imperialist impulses of the mid- and late-Victorian eras. Langer perhaps best summarized the importance of making the distinction of tardily-nineteenth-century imperialism when he wrote in 1935: '[...] this menses volition stand out as the crucial epoch during which the nations of the western globe extended their political, economic and cultural influence over Africa and over large parts of Asia ... in the larger sense the story is more than than the story of rivalry between European imperialisms; information technology is the story of European aggression and accelerate in the not-European parts of the earth.'
^ Compare the three-wave business relationship of European colonial/purple expansion: Gilmartin, Mary (2009). "nine: Colonialism/imperialism". In Gallaher, Carolyn; Dahlman, Carl T.; Gilmartin, Mary; Mountz, Alison; Shirlow, Peter (eds.). Key Concepts in Political Geography. Fundamental Concepts in Human Geography. London: SAGE. p. 115. ISBN9781446243541 . Retrieved 9 August 2017. Commentators have identified three broad waves of European colonial and imperial expansion, connected with specific territories. The outset targeted the Americas, North and Due south, as well as the Caribbean area. The second focused on Asia, while the third wave extended European control into Africa.
^ "Corn Law". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10 November 2010.
^ Nadel, George H. and Curtis, Perry (1969). Imperialism and Colonialism. Macmillan.
^ "Franco-German State of war". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. x November 2010.
^ Kindleberger, C. P., (1961), "Foreign Trade and Economic Growth: Lessons from United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland and France, 1850-1913", The Economic History Review, Vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 289–305.
^ Porter, B., (1996), The Lion's Share: A Brusque History of British Imperialism 1850-1995, (London: Longman), pp.118ff.
^ Xypolia, Ilia (2016). "Divide et Impera: Vertical and Horizontal Dimensions of British Imperialism" (PDF). Critique. 44 (iii): 221–231. doi:10.1080/03017605.2016.1199629. hdl:2164/9956. S2CID 148118309.
^ ^a ^b Lambert, Tim. "England in the 19th Century." Localhistories.org. 2008. 24 March 2015. [1]
^ ^a ^b ^c Platt, D.C.K. "Economic Factors in British Policy during the 'New Imperialism.'" Past and Present, Vol. 39, (April 1968). pp.120–138. jstor.org. 23 March 2015. [2]
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^east Davis, John. A History of Uk, 1885–1939. MacMillan Press, 1999. Print.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^eastward Ward, Paul. Britishness Since 1870. Routledge, 2004. Impress.
^ Kipling, Rudyard (1891). The English Flag. Readbookonline.net. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
^ ^a ^b Coyne, Christopher J. and Steve Davies. "Empire: Public Appurtenances and Bads" (Jan 2007). [3]
^ ^a ^b Eley, Geoff "Social Imperialism" pages 925–926 from Modern Frg Volume 2, New York, Garland Publishing, 1998 page 925.
^ History of the British salt tax in India
^ Bongenaar K.East.G. 'De ontwikkeling van het zelfbesturend landschap in Nederlandsch-Indië.' (Publisher: Walburg Printing) ISBN ninety-5730-267-v
^ Hanna, Willard A. 'Indonesian Banda: Colonialism and its Aftermath in the Nutmeg Islands.' (1991).
^ "Colonial Voyage - The website dedicated to the Colonial History". Colonial Voyage. Archived from the original on 25 December 2010.
^ Wallace, Alfred Russel (1869) 'The Malay Archipelago', (Publisher: Harper, 1869.) Chapter VII [4] Archived 17 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine
^ Tamm 2011, p. three. sfn error: no target: CITEREFTamm2011 (help)
^ ^a ^b Tamm 2011, p. four. sfn error: no target: CITEREFTamm2011 (help)
^ Jane E. Elliott (2002). Some Did it for Civilisation, Some Did it for Their Country: A Revised View of the Boxer State of war. Chinese University Printing. p. 143. ISBN962-996-066-iv . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
^ John King Fairbank (1978). The Cambridge History of China: Belatedly Chʻing, 1800–1911, pt. 2. Cambridge Academy Press. p. 94. ISBN978-0-521-22029-3.
^ Alex Marshall (22 Nov 2006). The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860–1917. Routledge. p. 78. ISBN978-1-134-25379-1.
^ Alex Marshall (22 November 2006). The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860–1917. Routledge. p. 79. ISBN978-one-134-25379-one.
^ Alex Marshall (22 November 2006). The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860–1917. Routledge. p. 80. ISBN978-1-134-25379-one.
^ Alex Marshall (22 November 2006). The Russian General Staff and Asia, 1860–1917. Routledge. pp. 85–. ISBN978-1-134-25379-1.
^ John Male monarch Fairbank (1978). The Cambridge History of People's republic of china: Late Chʻing, 1800–1911, pt. two. Cambridge University Press. p. 96. ISBN978-0-521-22029-iii.
^ David Scott (7 November 2008). Mainland china and the International System, 1840–1949: Power, Presence, and Perceptions in a Century of Humiliation. SUNY Press. pp. 104–105. ISBN978-0-7914-7742-7.
^ David Scott (7 November 2008). Cathay and the International Organization, 1840–1949: Power, Presence, and Perceptions in a Century of Humiliation. SUNY Press. pp. 111–112. ISBN978-0-7914-7742-7.
^ John Male monarch Fairbank (1978). The Cambridge History of China: Late Chʻing, 1800–1911, pt. two. Cambridge University Press. p. 95. ISBN978-0-521-22029-iii.
^ Po, Chung-yam (28 June 2013). Conceptualizing the Blue Frontier: The Great Qing and the Maritime Globe in the Long Eighteenth Century (PDF) (Thesis). Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg. p. eleven.
^ Pamela Nightingale; C. P. Skrine (5 November 2013). Macartney at Kashgar: New Low-cal on British, Chinese and Russian Activities in Sinkiang, 1890–1918. Routledge. p. 109. ISBN978-1-136-57609-6.
^ Tamm 2011, p. 353. sfn fault: no target: CITEREFTamm2011 (aid)
^ Douglas Story (1907). To-morrow in the East. Chapman & Hall, Express. p. 224.
^ Golshanpazhooh 2011. sfn fault: no target: CITEREFGolshanpazhooh2011 (help)
^ Gratale 2012. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGratale2012 (help)
^ "HugeDomains.com - UniMaps.com is for sale (Uni Maps)". www.hugedomains.com.
^ ^a ^b "Belgian Colonial Rule - African Studies - Oxford Bibliographies - obo". www.oxfordbibliographies.com . Retrieved 16 January 2019.
^ Pelton, Robert Immature (16 May 2014). "The Dark Continent". Vice . Retrieved xvi Jan 2019.
^ Casemate, Roger (1904). Casemate report on the Administration (PDF). London: British Parliamentary Papers.
^ Michiko Kakutani (30 August 1998). ""Male monarch Leopold'due south Ghost": Genocide With Spin Command". The New York Times
^ Katzenellenbogen, Simon (18 November 2010). "Congo, Autonomous Democracy of the". In Peter N. Stearns (ed.). Oxford Encyclopedia of the Mod World (e-reference edition). Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 26 July 2014.
^ Schimmer, Russell (eleven Nov 2010). "Belgian Congo". Genocide Studies Plan. Yale Academy. Archived from the original on vii Dec 2013.
^ Gondola, Ch. Didier. "Congo (Kinshasa)." Earth Book Avant-garde. World Book, 2010. Web. xviii Nov 2010.
^ ^a ^b Bernard Eccleston, Michael Dawson. 1998. The Asia-Pacific Profile. Routledge. p. 250.
^ "French Polynesia 1797-1889". Globe History at KMLA. Archived from the original on 30 December 2007. Retrieved 28 March 2021.
^ "A Guide to the United states' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, past Country, since 1776: Hawaii". Part of the Historian. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 28 March 2021.
^ "Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain; December x, 1898". Avalon Project. Yale Constabulary School. Retrieved 28 March 2021. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
^ "American Samoa". U.Southward. Department of the Interior, Office of Insular Affairs . Retrieved 28 March 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c Barros 1970, p. 497. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBarros1970 (help)
^ Saavedra-Rivano 1993, p. 193. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSaavedra-Rivano1993 (aid)
^ Barros 1970, pp. 213–214. sfn fault: no target: CITEREFBarros1970 (help)
^ Barros 1970, p. 213. sfn mistake: no target: CITEREFBarros1970 (assistance)
^ Barros 1970, p. 214. sfn mistake: no target: CITEREFBarros1970 (assistance)
^ Delsing 2012, p. 56. sfn mistake: no target: CITEREFDelsing2012 (help)
^
Come across:
- Craig 2002, p. 62 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFCraig2002 (help)
- Delsing 2012, p. 56 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDelsing2012 (assistance)
- Saavedra-Rivano 1993, p. 193 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSaavedra-Rivano1993 (help)
^ William Sater, Chile and the United States: Empires in Conflict, 1990 by the University of Georgia Press, ISBN 0-8203-1249-five
^ Winks, Robin Due west. "Imperialism." Encyclopedia Americana. Grolier Online, 2010. Spider web. 18 November 2010.
^ Robert Cribb, 'Development policy in the early 20th century', in Jan-Paul Dirkse, Frans Hüsken and Mario Rutten, eds, Evolution and social welfare: Indonesia's experiences under the New Club (Leiden: Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 1993), pp. 225–245.
^ Ricklefs, 1000.C. (1991). A History of Modernistic Indonesia since c.1300. London: Macmillan. p. 151. ISBN0-333-57690-10.

External links [edit]

J.A. Hobson's Imperialism: A Study: A Centennial Retrospective past Professor Peter Cain
All-encompassing information on the British Empire
British Empire
The Empire Strikes Out: The "New Imperialism" and Its Fatal Flaws by Ivan Eland, managing director of defense force policy studies at the Cato Institute. (an commodity comparing contemporary defense policy with those of New Imperialism (1870–1914)
The Martian Chronicles: History Backside the Chronicles New Imperialism 1870-1914
1- Coyne, Christopher J. and Steve Davies. "Empire: Public Goods and Bads" (Jan 2007). Wayback Machine
Imperialism - Net History Sourcebooks - Fordham University
The New Imperialism (a course syllabus)
The 19th Century: The New Imperialism
2- Coyne, Christopher J. and Steve Davies. "Empire: Public Appurtenances and Bads" (Jan 2007). Wayback Machine

buntonjuserebeaven.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Imperialism

Bunton Juserebeaven